The study found that within the past three years, more than 68 per cent of universities in the UK have seen free speech severely restricted, with academics unable to meaningfully discuss the nuances of issues such as race and gender.

The report notes that universities including Oxford, Cambridge and St Andrews, three of the world's premiere institutions are among those that have fallen into a "red" category for free speech following instances of "no platforming" of scheduled speakers.

The study warns that the situation has gotten so severe that it requires government legislation to stop campus censorship at 48 universities, the equivalent of at least 35 per cent of institutions.

Civitas noted that a further 70 institutions, over half, placed into a "amber category", have experienced restrictions on freedom of expression that should be looked into by university watchdog The Office for Students.

Researchers noted that freedom of speech "could be curbed by perceived transphobic episodes" in an alarming number of institutions, and that a "cancel culture" of open letters and or petitions from "external pressure groups" is eroding free speech.

Lead researcher Jim McConalogue noted "Our findings suggest that 86 per cent of universities faced either severe or moderate free speech restrictions which need to be addressed."